1 | Jiang, Minjuan 蒋敏娟 (2023). “组建中央社会工作部与社会治理现代化” (Establishment of the Central Social Work Department and Modernization of Social Governance). People’s Forum 7, 49–52. https://archive. is/HmG42. Accessed: 30.04.2025.; The Paper (2023). “组建中央社会工作部，有何深意？” (What is the significance of establishing the Central Social Work Department?). April 25. https://archive.ph/q3MPJ. Accessed: 30.04.2025.

2 | Qiushi求是网 (2025). “读懂‘社会工作一定要加强’的深意” (Understanding the profound meaning of ‘social work must be strengthened’). March 10.  https://archive.is/iyfts. Accessed: 30.04.2025.

3 | State Council (2025). “《新时代的中国国家安全》白皮书“ (White Paper ‘National Security in the new Era’).
May 12. https://www.scio.gov.cn/zfbps/zfbps_2279/202505/t20250512_894771.html. Accessed: 20.05.2025.

4 | China Daily (2025). “Proposed laws on ethnic unity, economy praised.” March 9. https://archive.is/ QwRYm. Accessed: 30.04.2025.

5 | Grünberg, Nis and Katja Drinhausen (2019). “The Party leads on everything: China’s changing governance in Xi Jinping’s new era.” MERICS. https://merics.org/sites/default/files/2020-05/The%20 Party%20leads%20on%20everything_0.pdf. Accessed: 30.04.2025.

6 | For an in depth-analysis see e.g.: Møller Mulvad, Andreas (2019). “Xiism as a Hegemonic Project in the Making: Sino-Communist Ideology and the Political Economy of China’s Rise.” Review of International Studies 45(3): 449–470. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0260210518000530; Tsang, Steve and Olivia Cheung (2024). The Political Thought of Xi Jinping. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

7 | Zhang, Yang 张洋 and Zhao Cheng 赵成 (2024). “走在时代前列 领航复兴伟业 —— 习近平总书记引领新时代 党的建设新的伟大工程不断开创新局面” (Walking in the forefront of the times and leading the great cause of rejuvenation – General Secretary Xi Jinping continues to break new ground in leading the new great project of Party building in the new era). People’s Daily. July 1. https://archive.is/kQZ9U. Accessed: 30.04.2025.

8 | Organization Department of the Central Committee of the CCP (2024). “中国共产党党内统计公报” (Statistical Bulletin of the Communist Party of China). People’s Daily. July 1. https://archive.is/UhI4o. Accessed: 30.04.2025.

9 | China.Table (2024). “Ideology: Freedom of travel for Chinese citizens continues to be restricted.” October 8. https://table.media/en/china/feature/ideology-freedom-of-travel-for-chinese-citizens-continu-
es-to-be-restricted/. Accessed: 30.04.2025.

10 | Antonio Gramsci defined the state as “… the entire complex of practical and theoretical activities by which the ruling class not only justifies and maintains its dominance, but manages to win the active consent of those over whom it rules …”, see Gramsci, Antonio (1971). Selections from the Prison Notebooks of Antonio Gramsci. London: Lawrence and Wishart, p. 244.

11 | In party policy plans and government work reports statements on social governance are now often discussed in the context of national and public security work. One recent example is the inclusion social governance in the section on national security in the outcome document of the CCP’s 2024 Third Plenum. State Council (2024). “Resolution of CPC Central Committee on further deepening reform comprehensively to advance Chinese modernization.” Juli 21. https://english.www.gov.cn/policies/latestreleases/202407/21/content_WS669d0255c6d0868f4e8e94f8.html.  Accessed: 30.04.2025.

12 | Compare e.g., Pei, Minxin (2024). The Sentinel State: Surveillance and the Survival of Dictatorship in China. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. https://doi.org/10.2307/jj.10860939. For an analysis of local implementation see Batke, Jessica and Mareike Ohlberg (2020). “State of Surveillance.” ChinaFile. October 3. https://www.chinafile.com/state-surveillance-china. Accessed: 30.04.2025.

13 | Batke, Jessica (2023). “Holding Sway.” ChinaFile. September 23.  https://www.chinafile.com/repor- ting-opinion/features/united-front-work-department-domestic. Accessed: 30.04.2025; Joske, Alex (2019). “Reorganizing the United Front Work Department: New Structures for a New Era of Diaspora and Religious Affairs Work,” China Brief 19(9). https://jamestown.org/program/reorganizing-the- united-front-work-department-new-structures-for-a-new-era-of-diaspora-and-religious-affairs-work/.  Accessed: 30.04.2025.

14 | Zhang, Feng 张峰 (2015). “习近平中央统战工作会议重要讲话的8个创新性亮点” (8 innovative highlights of Xi Jinping’s important speech at the Central United Front Work Conference). People.cn. June 6. https:// archive.is/eRD89. Accessed: 30.04.2025.

15 | State Council Bulletin (2023). “中共中央 国务院印发《党和国家机构改革方案》” (The Central Committee of the CCP and the State Council issued the ‘Plan for the Reform of Party and State Institutions’). March 16. https://archive.is/BZpjv. Accessed: 30.04.2025. While featuring a different institutional set up and responsibilities, the CCP has previously established and abolished a Society Affairs Work Department (1939-1949), which served predominantly for political and social control and was later absorbed into the new Ministry of State Security and internal intelligence apparatus.

16 | CNR (2023). “组建中央社会工作部，有何重要意义？” (What Is the Significant Importance of Establishing the Central Social Work Department?). March 17. https://archive.is/zL3Lm. Accessed: 30.04.2025; Zhang, Ke 张克 (2023). “从地方社工委到中央社会工作部：党的社会工作机构职能体系重塑” (From Local Society Work Committees to the Central Society Work Department: Restructuring the Functional System of the Party’s Society Work Institutions). Administrative Tribune 30(3): 72-81. https://link.oversea.cnki. net/doi/10.16637/j.cnki.23-1360/d.2023.03.003. Accessed: 30.04.2025.

17 | The Paper 澎湃 (2024). “全国31个省市自治区均已组建党委社会工作部门并开始全面履职” (All 31 Provinces, Municipalities and Autonomous Regions across the Country Have Set up Party Committees and Social Work Departments and Have Begun to Fully Perform Their Duties). February 23. https://archive.is/ AcU5u. Accessed: 30.04.2025.

18 | Zhang (2023).

19 | State Administration for Market Regulation (2023). “市场监管总局出台《市场监管部门开展小微企业个体工 商户专业市场党建工作指引》” (The State Administration for Market Regulation Issued the ‘Guidelines for Market Supervision Departments to Carry out Party Building Work in Specialized Markets for Small and Micro Enterprises and Individual Business Owners’). September 8. https://archive.is/BVY6k. Accessed: 30.04.2025.

20 | For further background on the Society Work Department also see Pieke, Frank N. (2025). “The Communist Party of China’s New Central Department of Social Work: Neo-Socialist Governance or Bolshevized Party Discipline?” Journal of Contemporary China: 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1080/10670564.2025.249 0744. Accessed: 30.04.2025.

21 | Wu, Hansheng 吴汉圣 (2024). “基层强则国家强 基层安则天下安” (If the grassroots are strong, the country will be strong; if the grassroots are safe, the world will be safe). Qiushi. May 16. https://archive.is/ Aek0J. Accessed: 30.04.2025.

22 | The Paper 澎湃 (2023). “组建中央社会工作部，有何深意？” (What is the significance of establishing the Central Social Work Department?). April 25. https://archive.ph/q3MPJ; Jiang, Minjuan 蒋敏娟 (2023). “ 组建中央社会工作部与社会治理现代化” (The Establishment of the Central Society Work Department and the Modernization of Social Governance). People’s Forum 7, 49–52. https://archive.is/HmG42. Accessed: 30.04.2025.

23 | Sadeler, Christina (2024). “Ahead of the Third Plenum, diverging visions for China’s private sector.” MERICS. July 12. https://merics.org/en/comment/ahead-third-plenum-diverging-visions-chinas-private-sector. Accessed: 30.04.2025.

24 | State Council (2017). “中共中央 国务院关于营造企业家健康成长环境弘扬优秀企业家精神更好发挥企业家作 用的意见” (Opinions of the CCP Central Committee and the State Council on creating a healthy growth environment for entrepreneurs, promoting excellent entrepreneurial spirit, and better leveraging the role of entrepreneurs). September 25. https://archive.is/LT74a. Accessed: 30.04.2025.

25 | State Council (2019). “中共中央 国务院关于营造更好发展环境支持民营企业改革发展的意见” (Opinions of the CCP Central Committee and the State Council on creating a better development environment to support the reform and development of private enterprises). December 22. https://archive.is/QHWbj. Accessed: 30.04.2025.

26 | General Office of the CCP Central Committee (2020). “中共中央办公厅印发《关于加强新时代民营经济统战工作的意见》” (The General Office of the CPC Central Committee issued the ‘Opinions on Strengthening the United Front Work in the Private Economy in the New Era’). September 15. https://archive.is/ nVLDW. Accessed: 30.04.2025.

27 | General Office of the CCP Central Committee (2019). “中共中央办公厅印发《关于加强和改进非公有制企业党的建设工作的意见（试行）》” (The General Office of the CCP Central Committee issued the ‘Opinions on Strengthening and Improving Party Building in Non-public Enterprises (Trial Implementation)’). February 15. https://archive.is/gzjYz. Accessed: 30.04.2025.

28 | Lau, Chris, Marc Stewart and Martha Zhou (2024). “‘Really Squeezed’: Why Drivers in the World’s Largest Food Delivery Market Are Having Meltdowns.” CNN Business. October 17. https://edition.cnn. com/2024/10/17/business/china-food-delivery-drivers-meltdowns-intl-hnk/index.html. Accessed: 30.04.2025.

29 | Chung, Ray and Lee Heung Yeung. Radio Free Asia (2024). “China Wants Its 12 Million Delivery Drivers to Work for the Party”. June 13. https://www.rfa.org/english/news/china/delivery-drivers-06132024152806.html. Accessed: 30.04.2025.

30 | Drinhausen, Katja and Helena Legarda (2022). “Comprehensive National Security’ unleashed: How Xi’s approach shapes China’s policies at home and abroad.” MERICS.https://merics.org/en/report/comprehensive-national-security-unleashed-how-xis-approach-shapes-chinas-policies-home-and. Accessed: 30.04.2025; Davidson, Helen (2024). “Love the army, defend the motherland: how China is pushing military education on children” The Guardian. August 11. https://www.theguardian.com/world/article/2024/aug/11/love-the-army-defend-the-motherland-how-china-is-pushing-military-education-on-children. Accessed: 30.04.2025.

31 | Bandurski, David (2021). “Red Genes.” China Media Project. May 18. https://chinamediaproject.org/ the_ccp_dictionary/red-genes/. Accessed: 30.04.2025.

32 | Ma, Josephine and Echo Xie (2021). “China opens more research centres dedicated to Xi Jinping Thought.” . South China Morning Post. July 9. https://www.scmp.com/news/china/politics/article/3140381/china-opens-more-research-centres-dedicated-xi-jinping-thought. Accessed: 30.04.2025; Zhuang, Sylvie (2023). “National Security Studies Are Going Mainstream in China. Will It Breed a New Chinese Elite?” South China Morning Post. December 2. https://www.scmp.com/news/china/politics/article/3243616/national-security-studies-are-going-mainstream-china-will-it-breed-new-chinese-elite. Accessed: 30.04.2025.

33 | Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China (2024). “Chinese vice premier calls for promoting spirit of scientists.” May 26. https://archive.is/tlSai. Accessed: 30.04.2025.

34 | In addition to the annual National Security Day established in 2025 and related-campaigns, districts, residential communities, schools and even companies increasingly organize defense education and training (国防教育). See e.g. The People’s Government of Xinglongtai District (2025). “光明社区开展“ 强国复兴有我”青少年国防教育知识讲座活动” (Guangming community carries out “the rejuvenation of the strong country and I” youth defense education lecture). February 27. https://web.archive.org/ web/20250512075531/https://www.xlt.gov.cn/2025_02/27_15/content-510416.html. Accessed: 30.04.2025.

35 | Bloomberg News (2023). “China’s Spy Agency Takes to WeChat in Espionage Crackdown.” August 1. https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2023-08-02/china-s-spy-agency-takes-to-wechat-in-espionage-crackdown?leadSource=uverify%20wall. Accessed: 30.04.2025; Greitens, Sheena Chestnut (2025). “Counter-Espionage and State Security: The Changing Role of China’s Ministry of State Security.” China Leadership Monitor 83. https://www.prcleader.org/post/counter-espionage-and-state-security-the-changing-role-of-china-s-ministry-of-state-security. Accessed: 30.04.2025.

36 | Pei, Minxin (2021). “Grid Management: China’s Latest Institutional Tool of Social Control.” China Leadership Monitor 67. https://www.prcleader.org/post/counter-espionage-and-state-security-the-changing-role-of-china-s-ministry-of-state-security.

37 | Buckley, Chris, Vivian Wang and Keith Bradsher (2022). “Living by the Code: In China, Covid-Era Controls May Outlast the Virus.” New York Times. January 30. https://www.nytimes.com/2022/01/30/ world/asia/covid-restrictions-china-lockdown.html.

38 | Jean Christopher Mittelstaedt (2021). “The grid management system in contemporary China:
Grass-roots governance in social surveillance and service provision.” China Information 36(1), 3-22. https://doi.org/10.1177/0920203X211011565. Accessed: 30.04.2025.

39 | Summary based on Chinese language media reports and job descriptions for grid worker positions. Zhihu (2023). “什么是街道网格员，待遇怎么样? ” (What is a street grid worker and how is he paid?). March 8. https://www.zhihu.com/question/321193626. Accessed: 30.04.2025.

40 | aistudy.baidu.com (2024). “网格员是做什么的工资待遇” (What is the salary of a grid worker?). Decem-
ber 16. https://archive.is/MvgG7. Accessed: 30.04.2025.

41 | Extrapolating from one locality can only provide an approximation of the resources that go into the system, as numbers of grid workers per resident and salary ranges vary across China. Shunyi was selected for being a successful model grid system that covers both urban residential areas and more rural communities. Using the Shenzhen example as a baseline would result in even higher numbers, whereas rural areas are much less well-paid.

42 | State Council of the People’s Republic of China (2025). “Full text: Report on the Work of the Government.” March 12. https://archive.is/CFWMu. Accessed: 30.04.2025.

43 | Communist Party Member Network (2023). “新时代的‘枫桥经验’” (The ‘Fengqiao Experience’ of the New Era). November 6. https://archive.is/hg4QZ. Accessed: 30.04.2025; China Media Project (2021). “Fengqiao Experience.” April 16. https://chinamediaproject.org/the_ccp_dictionary/fengqiao-experience/. Accessed: 30.04.2025.

44 | Wan, Jianwu 万建武 (2023). “‘枫桥经验’： ‘中国之治’的一张金名片” (‘Fengqiao experience’: A Golden Calling Card of ‘Chinese Governance’). Qiushi. December 1. https://archive.is/H5gzM. Accessed: 30.04.2025.

45 | Ministry of Public Security of the People’s Republic of China (2019). “公安部作出决定 命名首批100个‘枫桥式公安派出所’” (The Ministry of Public Security has decided to name the first batch of 100 ‘Fengqiao-style police stations’). November 29. https://archive.is/qsJIw. Accessed: 30.04.2025.

46 | State Council (2022). “中共中央 国务院关于做好2022年全面推进乡村振兴重点工作的意见” (Opinions of the CCP Central Committee and the State Council on comprehensively promoting key tasks of rural revitalization in 2022). February 22. https://archive.is/aXilK. Accessed: 30.04.2025.

47 | Descriptions of daily hardships and complaints can be found in Chinese language news articles and social media posts of grid worker. An example of deadly violence against a female grid worker as well as a detailed insight into work conditions can be found in a news article on the case: Sanlian Life Weekly (2024). “一名25岁大学生之死” (Death of a 25-year-old college student). https://archive.is/PkXGn. Accessed: 30.04.2025.

48 | Gong, Weibin 龚维斌 (2025). “习近平总书记关于推进国家治理体系和治理能力现代化的重要论述的原创性贡献” (The original contribution of General Secretary Xi Jinping’s important exposition on promoting the modernization of the national governance system and governance capacity). People.cn. February 13. https://archive.is/lVPFc. Accessed: 30.04.2025.

49 | State Council (2025).